Saudi Arabia’s War on Drugs: How a Rising Amphetamine Crisis Has Triggered Controversial Capital Punishment

The Desert Kingdom’s Deadly Crusade Against Captagon and Other Stimulants

In the shadow of Saudi Arabia’s gleaming skyscrapers and ambitious modernization projects, a far grimmer reality unfolds at dawn in public squares across the kingdom. Since 2022, hundreds of individuals have faced execution by sword or firing squad, many for crimes related to drug trafficking. As the nation grapples with an unprecedented flood of amphetamines—particularly Captagon, sometimes called “the poor man’s cocaine”—Saudi authorities have responded with a zero-tolerance approach that has alarmed international human rights organizations and strained diplomatic relations with numerous countries.

The scale of Saudi Arabia’s drug crisis cannot be overstated. Border security forces regularly intercept millions of Captagon pills, with single seizures sometimes reaching tens of millions of tablets. These amphetamines, primarily manufactured in war-torn Syria and smuggled through neighboring Jordan and Iraq, have found a ready market in a country where religious restrictions on alcohol have historically limited recreational substance options. “The kingdom faces an existential threat from these substances,” explains Dr. Ahmed Al-Otaibi, a Riyadh-based addiction specialist who spoke on condition of partial anonymity. “We’re seeing unprecedented addiction rates among young Saudis, and the government views this not just as a public health crisis but as a fundamental challenge to social stability and religious values.”

What has drawn international condemnation, however, is not the kingdom’s determination to address drug trafficking, but rather the severity of its response and the troubling questions surrounding due process for the accused. Since Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman consolidated power in 2017, executions have accelerated dramatically, with 2022 seeing 147 people put to death—more than the combined totals of 2020 and 2021. A disproportionate number of those executed are foreign nationals, predominantly from South Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. Human rights investigators have documented numerous cases where defendants had inadequate legal representation, faced language barriers during trials, allegedly experienced torture during interrogation, and were convicted on confessions they later recanted. Perhaps most disturbing, many of those executed were low-level mules or couriers—individuals often economically vulnerable and sometimes unaware of exactly what they were transporting.

The case of Hussein Abo al-Kheir exemplifies the concerns that have prompted international outcry. The 57-year-old Jordanian national was arrested in 2014 while crossing into Saudi Arabia, allegedly with amphetamine pills hidden in his car. Despite his insistence that he was merely a driver unaware of any contraband, Abo al-Kheir was sentenced to death following what human rights organizations described as a deeply flawed trial. According to reports from multiple watchdog groups, he was denied proper legal counsel, subjected to physical torture including suspension from the ceiling and electrical shocks, and coerced into signing a confession he could not read. His execution in 2023, despite international appeals for clemency, highlighted what critics call a systematic disregard for basic legal protections in drug-related cases. “These are not meticulous investigations targeting drug kingpins,” explains Sarah Leah Whitson, executive director of Democracy for the Arab World Now. “The Saudi justice system is ensnaring vulnerable workers, often from impoverished backgrounds, while the architects of these smuggling networks remain untouched.”

Saudi officials vehemently reject such characterizations, pointing to their extensive investments in rehabilitation facilities and prevention programs. The kingdom has established dedicated addiction treatment centers in major cities and launched nationwide awareness campaigns targeting youth. “We apply the law equally to all who threaten our society with these poisons,” stated Interior Ministry spokesperson Brigadier General Majed Al-Dosari during a recent press conference. “But we also extend a hand to those seeking recovery.” Government representatives emphasize that capital punishment represents only one component of a comprehensive anti-drug strategy that includes enhanced border security, international cooperation, and religious counseling. They further argue that the kingdom’s harsh penalties serve as an effective deterrent, noting significant decreases in certain smuggling routes following high-profile executions. This claim, however, remains contested by criminologists who point to continued high volumes of drug seizures as evidence that capital punishment has failed to significantly disrupt supply chains.

The international implications of Saudi Arabia’s drug enforcement policies extend beyond human rights concerns. Diplomatic tensions have escalated with countries whose citizens face execution, particularly in cases where consular access has been restricted or denied entirely. The Philippines, Pakistan, and several African nations have lodged formal protests following the executions of their nationals, often learning of the deaths only after they occurred. Meanwhile, as Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman continues his ambitious Vision 2030 campaign to attract foreign investment and tourism, the kingdom’s capital punishment practices present a significant reputational challenge. Western allies, particularly European nations that have abolished the death penalty, find themselves in an increasingly uncomfortable position—balancing strategic partnerships and lucrative trade relationships against fundamental disagreements over human rights. As one European diplomat in Riyadh, speaking on condition of anonymity, observed: “The contradiction is stark. Saudi Arabia is simultaneously positioning itself as an emerging global hub for business and culture while maintaining one of the world’s most severe criminal justice systems. How these competing visions reconcile will define the kingdom’s international standing in the coming decades.”

Saudi Youth and the Captagon Crisis: A Generation at Risk

Behind the headlines of executions and international tension lies a deeply human story—that of young Saudis increasingly vulnerable to substance abuse. In a society undergoing rapid social transformation, traditional support structures have sometimes struggled to adapt. Economic pressures, despite the country’s overall wealth, have created pockets of youth unemployment and disillusionment. These factors, combined with the relatively low cost and high availability of Captagon, have created perfect conditions for a growing addiction crisis. The typical Captagon tablet costs between $3-10 on Saudi streets, making it accessible even to users with limited financial means. The amphetamine produces intense feelings of euphoria, confidence, and energy—effects particularly appealing in a society where many young people report feelings of restriction and limited outlets for recreation.

“What we’re seeing is truly unprecedented,” explains Dr. Fatima Al-Harbi, who works at a rehabilitation facility in Jeddah. “Ten years ago, drug use was heavily stigmatized and relatively rare. Today, we’re operating at full capacity with waiting lists for treatment.” The demographic profile of users has shifted dramatically as well. Once primarily associated with marginalized populations, Captagon use now crosses socioeconomic boundaries, affecting university students, young professionals, and even individuals from religiously conservative families. Users typically begin with occasional consumption at social gatherings before developing dependencies that require increasing quantities to achieve the same effects. The stimulant’s appeal also extends to those seeking performance enhancement—students cramming for exams, workers managing multiple jobs, and even some religious devotees attempting to maintain energy during extended prayers and rituals.

The health consequences have been severe. Emergency departments across the kingdom report rising cases of amphetamine-induced psychosis, cardiovascular emergencies, and severe dehydration. Long-term users often develop paranoia, hallucinations, and deterioration of physical health. “We’re treating young men in their twenties with heart conditions typically seen in patients decades older,” notes Dr. Al-Harbi. “The psychological damage can be even more profound and lasting.” Recovery services, while expanding rapidly under government funding, struggle to keep pace with demand. Traditional approaches emphasizing religious guidance and abstinence have shown limited effectiveness with severe addiction cases, prompting a gradual shift toward evidence-based psychiatric and psychological interventions.

For families, the stigma surrounding addiction remains powerful despite public education efforts. Many households conceal their struggles, delaying crucial intervention until crises emerge. Umm Muhammad, the mother of a recovering 22-year-old Captagon user, described discovering her son’s addiction as “a living nightmare.” Speaking in her Riyadh home, she recounted: “We raised him with strong values and religious instruction. When we found him behaving erratically, losing weight, not sleeping for days—we first thought he was simply overworking. By the time we understood what was happening, he had already sold his car, his watches, everything of value to maintain his habit.” Her son eventually received treatment following a medical emergency, but many families continue suffering in silence.

The societal impact extends beyond individual health concerns. Security officials report correlations between amphetamine use and domestic violence incidents, reckless driving fatalities, and various property crimes committed to finance addictions. Schools and universities have implemented random drug testing programs after identifying performance-enhancing drug use among students. Even the traditional Saudi workplace has been affected, with human resource departments developing protocols for identifying and addressing substance abuse among employees. The comprehensive social cost—in healthcare expenditure, lost productivity, family breakdown, and criminal justice responses—reaches billions of riyals annually according to government estimates.

Beyond Executions: Alternative Approaches to Drug Control

As debate continues regarding Saudi Arabia’s use of capital punishment for drug offenses, experts increasingly advocate for more nuanced approaches to addressing the amphetamine crisis. Evidence from international contexts suggests that balanced strategies combining enforcement, treatment, and prevention yield more sustainable results than punishment alone. Several neighboring Gulf states, facing similar challenges with Captagon trafficking, have implemented multi-faceted responses that maintain strict penalties while expanding alternatives to incarceration for addiction cases. The United Arab Emirates, for instance, revised its drug laws in 2021 to emphasize rehabilitation for first-time offenders while maintaining severe consequences for traffickers.

“There’s no question that smuggling networks require robust law enforcement responses,” acknowledges Dr. Ibrahim Al-Dossari, a Saudi criminologist who has studied comparative drug policies. “But executing couriers—many of whom come from desperate circumstances and occupy the lowest rungs of these organizations—has limited impact on the trade itself. The kingpins simply recruit more mules.” He suggests Saudi Arabia could maintain deterrence while reducing executions by reserving capital punishment for high-level traffickers proven to be organizational leaders, while implementing graduated penalties for lower-level offenses. Such recalibration would address international human rights concerns without compromising the kingdom’s fundamental anti-drug stance.

Prevention efforts present another area where expanded investment could yield significant returns. Current Saudi awareness campaigns primarily emphasize religious prohibitions and legal consequences, approaches that research suggests have limited effectiveness among at-risk youth. More promising are programs addressing underlying vulnerability factors, including mental health support, constructive recreational opportunities, and economic development initiatives in high-risk communities. The kingdom’s expanding entertainment sector—including concerts, cinema, and sports events—offers positive alternatives to drug-centered socializing, though accessibility remains limited for lower-income youth.

Rehabilitation represents perhaps the most critical frontier. While Saudi Arabia has increased treatment capacity substantially, the quality and approach of services vary widely. Traditional models emphasizing moral failing and religious redemption persist alongside newer, evidence-based methodologies. Progressive treatment specialists advocate for comprehensive care addressing psychological, physical, social, and spiritual dimensions of recovery. “We need to recognize addiction as a complex health condition requiring sophisticated intervention, not simply a moral weakness or criminal behavior,” argues Dr. Nora Al-Shamrani, who trained in addiction medicine in the United States before returning to establish a treatment center in Riyadh. “When we treat it primarily as a crime, we drive it underground and create barriers to those seeking help.”

International cooperation offers another promising avenue. The kingdom has strengthened intelligence sharing with neighbors regarding trafficking routes and enhanced technological capabilities at border crossings. However, addressing production remains challenging. Most Captagon originates in Syria, where years of civil conflict have created lawless territories ideal for clandestine manufacturing. Without stability in production regions, interdiction alone cannot stem the flow. Saudi Arabia has supported various regional security initiatives aimed at disrupting production facilities, though with limited success given the complex geopolitics of Syrian territories.

As Saudi society continues navigating between tradition and modernization, the amphetamine crisis represents a profound test of the kingdom’s institutional adaptability. The most promising path forward likely involves maintaining strong deterrence against trafficking while evolving beyond an exclusively punitive approach to addressing addiction itself. Whether Saudi leadership will recalibrate its use of capital punishment remains uncertain, but the multifaceted nature of the challenge demands responses extending far beyond the executioner’s sword.